The Production of M. Butterfly and the Reflection of Culture Essay - 1

The Production of M. Butterfly and the Reflection of Culture - Essay Example Criticisms towards M. butterfly range from arguments or debates over an illustration of sexualities and ethnicity, Orientalism politics, theatre to performance theories. As such, this essay explores and analyzes the production of M. Butterfly and ways through which the play manifests Asian scenic designs, tales, costume designs, movements, and sounds to the whole world. The play incorporates various Asian elements. For instance, the stage design has a hanamichi, the actors wear Japanese traditional clothes and the storyline depicts the notion of an Asian woman who is slender, beautiful and submissive. Additionally, M Butterfly employs the element of cross-dressing which is a Chinese characteristic commonly used by Beijing opera actors. All these elements in the play represent Asia. Madama Butterfly by Giacomo Puccini inspired David Hwang into writing the M. Butterfly play. Hwang based his play on a true story. Renne Gallimard, the protagonist works as a civil servant in the French Embassy in China. The protagonist falls in love with Song Liling, the Chinese opera diva while in the process of watching Madama Butterfly. They immediately establish a love relationship that proceeds to last more than two decades. The end of the love passion comes when authorities sentence Gallimard of treason with subsequent imprisonment. To his surprise, the protagonist discovers that the purported lover was a man and a government investigator. Gallimard commits suicide for failing to accept the truth. The play by Hwang has three acts. Act 1 has thirteen scenes whereas Act 2 has seven and three scenes in the last Act. M. Butterfly presents a fictionalized story of a French diplomat who was in a relationship with an Asian, specifically Chinese singer for more than twenty years without actually knowing that his beautiful obedient and submissive lover was actually a male. Gallimard views himself as being clumsy when it comes to love. However, he considers himself  blessed since he has a devoted beautiful and exotic woman (Liling Song).  

The Sons Veto Essay Example for Free

The Sons Veto Essay Compare aspects of prejudice in Roll Of Thunder, Hear My Cry, by Mildred Taylor, and, The Sons Veto, by Thomas Hardy. Prejudice: The act of prejudging a subject or group of subjects on the basis of opinions that are not grounded in fact or experience. Prejudice can be on the basis of race, religion, political view, age, appearance or cultural affiliation Many people have different views on prejudice, what it is and whether its right or wrong. Some people may believe that prejudice is racism, but prejudice is when you have an opinion of someone or something without knowledge of what they or it are really like. It may be class or colour, rich or poor, its all prejudice. In this essay I will compare the aspects of prejudice in Roll Of Thunder, Hear My Cry by Mildred Taylor, and, The Sons Veto, by Thomas Hardy. I will look at how segregation is achieved in each story and the consequences of it. Roll Of Thunder, is a story about a black family in the southern states of America in the 1930s. At this point in American history, prejudice against blacks was at an all time high. Sharecropping was a part of life then. The story focuses on the Logan family and their struggle against racism. They have their own land, so they dont have to share-crop, but the local land owner, Harlan Granger, wants their land, and this book is about their struggle to keep it, and their fight against racism. The Sons Veto, is a story of a young woman who has suffered from class prejudice for all her life since she fell down some stairs and was forced to use a wheelchair. Before she had her injury she was courting a gardener named Sam, when she had her injury, the vicar she was serving felt sorry for her, and decided that he should marry her. Now, because of the social status of the vicar, she could not refuse, but this would be social suicide for the vicar. The story shows the prejudice that Sophy has to suffer, and how even those very close to you, can prejudge. In the very beginning of Roll Of Thunder, the Logan children have a long walk to school, as they are walking along the dirty, dusty road, a school bus from the Jefferson Davis School, a white school comes speeding towards the children. The bus driver deliberately drives the children towards the muddy banks of the road, he comes so close that the children are forced to dive into the bank. As the bus speeds past there are white children on the bus laughing and shouting nigger, nigger, mud eater and other comments, this shows us that racism is very prominent here because even children are taught to speak like this to people. Another matter is when little man receives his badly conditioned book from miss Crocker, he is incensed that the books have been discarded by white pupils and handed down to the inferior black schools as soon as they are no longer good enough for white pupils. The point is also driven by the fact that there is chart in the book, which states the condition that the book that is in, and the colour of the pupil using it. It states that the book has been in circulation for eleven years and now that the book is in a dismal state, the book is given to the nigra student. The perception of societys feelings to the blacks is made clear to us early in the story by these incidents, showing us that the whites thing they are somehow better than the blacks, and deserve better books and equipment, we also see that blacks are hated so much that even children are taught to taunt them, and make fun of them. In The Sons Veto, the story is started off at a charity fair, and Sophy, the main character in the story, is sitting in a wheelchair, with passers by staring at her as they move past. Why do they need to look? Is it abnormal for a person in a wheelchair to come to a charity fair? No, what we are seeing is the attitude of people towards others of a lower class than themselves. The book says a boy of 12 or 13 who stood beside her, and the shape of whose hat and jacket implied that he belonged to a well known public school. The immediate bystanders could hear that he had called her mother. This show us that the bystanders are surprised to see a woman like that, of a working class, to be the mother of a well made boy like this. A little later Sophy talks to Randolph, her son, and she says He have been so comfortable these last few hours that I am sure he cannot have missed us immediately after Randolph exclaims Has, dear mother, not have! He speaks with impatient fastidiousness that was almost harsh, and Sophy immediately adopts the correction with no retaliation or resent for him making it, this is showing us that its not just society that looks down on her, but her own son! The perception of society towards Sophy is made clear early on the story because of both of these incidents, the passers by staring at her, and her son correcting her grammar. In Roll Of Thunder we see many cases of segregation by colour, segregation is when one group of people separate themselves to better social standards that another group of people. One of the earliest cases we see is that the white pupils from the Jefferson High come past in a school bus, but the Logan children have to walk to school, This is where the segregation of the classes really begins.

Life in Maycomb in To Kill a Mockingbird :: English Literature

What impressions are there of life in Maycomb in To Kill a Mockingbird Maycomb is seen as a tired and sleepy town, where nothing happens. Maycomb is a very isolated town itself, so it is insular. There are no nearby towns or villages so are very alone. This makes the town so boring and tired. Nothing very exciting happens in Maycomb, if there is something reasonably different from to Maycomb’s usual routine then the community get both excited but also scared. For example when it snowed Scout was scared that the sky was falling, but Jem knew what it was and got very excited and managed to make a snowman. When the Radleys’ house is supposedly broken into by Negroes, and the mad dog incident are both examples of Maycomb’s panic at something different. The trial is a very prominent example of something that Maycomb finds exciting and new, the new part being a white man trying to prove a black man innocent. The Maycomb community make a family day out or picnic out of the trial, even thought is a very serious and unpleasant court case. â€Å"It was a gala occasion.† â€Å"The courthouse square was covered with picnic parties sitting on newspapers, washing down biscuit and syrup with warm milk from fruit jars.† Nothing has changed in Maycomb, it is very traditional and tries to keep as much of its past as possible. Maycomb town is obsessed with background; it clings to old views the main one being prejudice against blacks. Maycomb needs the likes of Atticus and his children to bring the town forward. For example the Maycomb County Courthouse: â€Å"a view indicating a people determined to preserve every physical scrap of the past.† Racism in Maycomb has existed since the Indians. It shows how Maycomb is based on extreme racial and prejudice. â€Å"If General Jackson hadn’t run the Creeks.† Maycomb is also shown as a town that has not been brought up to present times by the state of the actual town. It is very poor and in disrepair, it only has one taxi. When Miss Maudie’s house catches on fire the fire engine does not reach Maycomb for a while because Maycomb is a very isolated town and not very important so therefore there is now nearby fire station. â€Å"In rainy weather the streets turned to red slop; grass grew on the sidewalks, the courthouse sagged in the square.† Maycomb seems to be an innocent, peaceful town when first seen. Harper Lee proves to show this is a misconception made by outsiders. Throughout the novel we learn the ways and life of Maycomb. â€Å"Maycomb County had recently been told it had nothing to fear but fear

Growing Up, Staying Young Essay -- Personal Narrative Papers

Growing Up, Staying Young I had trouble sleeping that night. The peaceful, rhythmic breathing of my younger sister across the room could not calm me as I lay under the covers in the dark, listening for the heavy footsteps of an elderly man sneaking through the downstairs floor of my house. With one hand firmly choking Red Blankie, I reached with the other to turn the alarm clock on my bedstand toward me. The fluorescent red digits whispered 12:03 in the still, black room. Perhaps he will come soon. Delicate tingles danced up my arms, as I froze like a nervous cat, ears up, ready and alert. I rehearsed the carefully planned sequence of events in my head. A suspicious and unfamiliar sound from the living room would be my signal -- a wet snow boot hitting the carpet, a clumsy hand inadvertently knocking over a dish on the fireplace, or a rustle of papers. Carefully, I would slide out of my flowered bed without waking my sleeping sister, tiptoe gently across the bedroom floor out into the chilly hall, and down the first five stairs, avoiding the creaky spots in the floor along the way. There, peering around the corner of the wall that ended at the fifth stair, I would at last behold the mysterious man whom no one in my family -- not Mommy, not Daddy, and of course not little Ming -- had ever seen. The bearded man would be dressed in a red suit with white trim. His name was Santa Claus. Mommy and Daddy had told me that Santa and his nine reindeer wouldn't come to put presents under the Christmas tree until after I had fallen asleep, but of course, they didn't know about my brilliant plan to catch the old man in the act. Squinting under the meager moonlight that peered in through my bedroom window, I forced my... ...power to believe in other abstractions besides the white-bearded man -- entities such as "fate" or "true love" that may seem every bit as fanciful. I also have the ability to imagine a society that does not use bombs to solve disagreements and can instead trust in reason and diplomacy. The idealistic notion that one person can make a difference in the world motivates me everyday in my quest to be a doctor. As a child, I read the story of Peter Pan, an adolescent boy who refused to grow up and thus stayed in Never Never Land, a magical place where he wouldn't age and could spend his days in spectacular adventures. I hope that as I grow another year older, I can always keep a little Peter Pan in my spirit, that I can see a story in even the most simple things around me, and that I will continue, every Christmas Eve, to leave cookies and milk out for Santa Claus.

Muslim women do not receive equal treatment with men Essay

Some westerners think Muslim women do not receive equal treatment with men. In fact, the aim of Islam is quite the opposite.’ Examine and comment on this claim in the context of a multicultural society. Why is it that western consciousness perceives Islam in such deeply flawed terms? Why are negative images of Islam more prevalent than any others? Why is it still acceptable to say things about Muslims that would simply be deemed unacceptable of Jews, Christians, or Buddhists? That years of inter-faith dialogue have done little to advance a better understanding of the Islamic faith in the western world is an indication of how profoundly entrenched in the West misrepresentations and vulgar stereotypes of Islam are. The western society generally views itself as the source of women’s liberation, and feminists seem to have an obligation to broaden their rights to the eastern oppressed women. West sees the veil as a stumbling block and feels if they were to remove it would it would gain freedom for these women. These views have misunderstood the status of women in Islam and have been publicized in the media. Britain regards itself as giving equal rights to men and women Although in Britain latest studies have shown that men are paid more than women to carry out the same task. Surveys have shown that employers would rather employ men than women with the same qualifications. There are hardly any women politicians in comparison to men but Muslim women like Khaleda Zia of Bangladesh, have ruled over 300 hundred million Muslims in the 1990s and now is currently being ruled by another women. Benazir Bhutto had been the president of Pakistan. There has essentially never been a female president in the United States till this present time. The extent of a religion’s efficiency depends on what resolution to controversial issues like that of women is presented. Islam has provided the most practical outline of social organization, according to the natural and physical capabilities of both men and women. However other civilisations and faiths prior to Islam dealt with this matter as well, Aristotle and many other Greek philosophers argued that women were not fully human and this view was accepted in the catholic churches. St Thomas Aquinas another philosopher later put forward his view of the earlier Greek philosopher proposing that women were the traps of Satan. Every evil caused in humanity was likely from them. This idea was accepted throughout the middle ages. Men were the only ones who had rights before the law they could buy, sell and own a property. Up to this present time male Jews still recite,† Blessed art thou our lord, our God king of the universe that I was not born a female†(Alan Unterman, Jews: their Religious beliefs and practices,1981, page 140). Also in Judaism, the Talmud states â€Å"Woe to the man whose children are female† (Ibid, Page 133) In pre Islamic Arabia women were treated like commodities, object desire that were bought and sold like cattle. Some of them were even made to dance naked in the vicinity of the Kaaba during annual festivals. In those times a man could have as many wives as he desired and women were inherited if widowed from father to son. Arabs used to bury their female children alive at birth, and treat women as mere chattels and objects of sexual pleasure possessing no rights or position whatsoever, these teachings of the Noble Qur’an were revolutionary. Unlike other religions, which regarded women as being possessed of inherent sin and wickedness and men as being possessed of inherent virtue and nobility, Islam regards men and women as being of the same essence created from a single soul. The Qur’an declares: O you who believe! You are forbidden to inherit women against their will. Nor should you treat them with harshness, that you may take away part of the dowry you have given them – except when they have become guilty of open lewdness. On the contrary live with them on a footing of kindness and equity. If you take a dislike to them, it may be that you dislike something and Allah will bring about through it a great deal of good. (4:19) O mankind! Reverence your Guardian-Lord, who created you from a single person, created, of like nature, his mate, and from this pair scattered (like seeds) countless men and women. Reverence Allah, through whom you demand your mutual (rights), and reverence the wombs (that bore you); for Allah ever watches over you. (4:1) Spiritually men and women are equal. They are created out of identical spiritual material. (According to some old Christian’s thinkers) so therefore if women are sinful so are the men because they are identical. In Islam there is absolutely no difference between men and women as far as their relationship to Allah is concerned, as both are promised the same reward for good conduct and the same punishment for evil conduct. The Qur’an says: And for women are rights over men similar to those of men over women. (2:226) The Qur’an, in addressing the believers, often uses the expression,’ believing men and women’ to emphasize the equality of men and women in regard to their respective duties, rights, virtues and merits. It says: For Muslim men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast, for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah’s praise, for them has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward. (33:35) Enter into Paradise, you and your wives, with delight. (43:70) Who so does that which is right, and believes, whether male or female, him or her will We quicken to happy life. (16:97) The Qur’an admonishes those men who oppress or ill-treat women: The Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him) said, â€Å"Women are the twin halves of men.† The Qur’an emphasizes the essential unity of men and women in a most beautiful simile: They (your wives) are your garment and you are a garment for them. (2:187) the ideal relationship between husband and wife is graphically described in the above verse. Just as a garment hides our nakedness, so do husband and wife, by entering into the relationship of marriage, secure each other’s chastity. The garment gives comfort to the body; so does the husband find comfort in his wife’s company and she in his. â€Å"The garment is the grace, the beauty, the embellishment of the body, so too are wives to their husbands as their husbands are to them.† Islam does not consider woman â€Å"an instrument of the Devil†, but rather the Qur’an calls her musanat – a fortress against Satan because a good woman, by marrying a man, helps him keep to the path of rectitude in his life. It is for this reason that marriage was considered by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as a most virtuous act. He said: â€Å"When a man marries, he has completed one half of his religion.† He enjoined matrimony on Muslims by saying: â€Å"Marriage is part of my way and whoever keeps away from my way is not from me (i.e. is not my follower).† The Qur’an has given the raison d’à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tre of marriage in the following words: And among His signs is this that He has created for you mates from among yourselves, that you may dwell in tranquility with them; and He has put love and mercy between you. Verily in that are signs for those who reflect. (30:21) The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was full of praise for virtuous and chaste women. He said: â€Å"The world and all things in the world are precious but the most precious thing in the world is a virtuous woman. He once told the future khalif, ‘Umar: â€Å"Shall I not inform you about the best treasure a man can hoard? It is a virtuous wife who pleases him whenever he looks towards her, and who guards herself when he is absent from her.† On other occasions the Prophet said: â€Å"The best property a man can have is a remembering tongue (about Allah), a grateful heart and a believing wife who helps him in his faith.† And again: â€Å"The world, the whole of it, is a commodity and the best of the commodities of the world is a virtuous wife.† The Prophet (peace be upon him) was most emphatic in enjoining upon Muslims to be kind to their women when he delivered his famous khutba on the Mount of Mercy at Arafat in the presence of one hundred and twenty-four thousand of his Companions who had gathered there for the Hajj al-Wada (Farewell Pilgrimage). In it he ordered those present, and through them all those Muslims who were to come later, to be respectful and kind towards women. He said: â€Å"Fear Allah regarding women. Verily you have married them with the trust of Allah, and made their bodies lawful with the word of Allah. You have got (rights) over them, and they have got (rights) over you in respect of their food and clothing according to your means.† â€Å"One who makes efforts (to help) the widow or a poor person is like a mujahid (warrior) in the path of Allah, or like one who stands up for prayers in the night and fasts in the day.† These aspects were much emphasized by the Prophet (peace be upon him). He exhorted men to marry women of piety and women to be faithful to their husbands and kind to their children. He said: â€Å"Among my followers the best of men are those who are best to their wives, and the best of women are those who are best to their husbands. To each of such women is set down a reward equivalent to the reward of a thousand martyrs. Among my followers, again, the best of women are those who assist their husbands in their work, and love them dearly for everything, Islam, as a religion recognizes men’s and women’s role as different but, however it certainly does not regard them as superior or inferior than one or the other. Both roles are as important as each other. Islam has been designed to be flexible enough to be interpreted in a variety of ways to cover a variety of cultures, times, contexts, individual personalities. both men and women should dress (in public) in a manner that will de-accentuate their sexuality1. The Surah an-Nur says: Tell the believing men to lower their eyes and guard their private parts†¦ Tell the believing women to lower their eyes, guard their private parts and not display their charms except what is apparent outwardly†¦ (an-Nur 24:30-31). O Prophet! Tell thy wives and thy daughters, as well as all (other) believing women, that they should draw over themselves some of their outer garments (when in public): this will be more conducive to their being recognized (as decent women) and not annoyed. But (withal,) God is indeed much-forgiving, a dispenser of grace! (al-Ahzab 33:59, Asad transl.) The spirit of this ayat is to dress in a manner that will signal ‘unavailability’. The reason why another ayat (an-Nur 24:60) is crucial in gaining a broad overview of the Qur’anic concept of appropriate dress is that it implies that women should wear in public more than what they would wear in private, in front of their ‘intimates’ – their families. So this leads to three basic ‘points’ in considering how to dress: a) the universal idea of de-sexualized dress b) the time and context specific concept of being identifiable as a Muslim c) that before she reaches old age (and preferably after) a Muslim woman should wear more in public than she would privately in front of family. As long as these three injunctions are met, there is a wide range of options open to the Muslim woman depending on the context of the society in which she lives and moves in public. Today, Muslim women’s dress has been politicized and carries with it many conflicting symbols and meanings; perhaps the most visible is the use of head covering as a confrontation against western colonialism. Muslim woman has to have the right and freedom to choose how she interprets her dress code. This fundamental acknowledgement of her instinctive ability to choose (or not) the path of Allah (swt) is more important than any type of specifics about what constitutes hijab (or appropriate covering of the body). Without this freedom to interpret Islam to the best of her ability (a part of which, of course, is seeking the informed opinions of knowledgeable Muslims in order to educate herself) she is not living up to her potential as a human being, and that is more fundamental than what clothes are being worn. As the Qur’an says: There is no compulsion in matter of faith. Distinct is the way of guidance now from error†¦ (Al-Baqarah 2:256, A.Ali translation) The queen of her house’, is the position a true believer is expected to give his wife. In contrast to these enlightened teachings of Islam in respect of women, Western talk of women’s liberation or emancipation is actually a disguised form of exploitation of her body, deprivation of her honor, and degradation of her soul! Islam has given the highest position to women on earth, while Europe and the west were wallowing in the dregs of degradation and savagery. Islam had accorded women a position of honour, respect, safety and love, which has not yet been matched to this day, let alone being superseded and excelled. When questioned about status one must consider Muslim women’s rights in the field of finance. A Muslim woman has the right to full ownership and disposal of wealth at will. This right was granted to her about 1423 years ago whilst Britain, women didn’t have this right untill1860s. Her father if she was unmarried must provide for a Muslim woman or by her husband if married; however rich she may be, she is not responsible for domestic expenses. This is one of many privileges given to women. The Holy Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, ‘The searching of knowledge is incumbent for every Muslim (male and female).Women should pursue their education as far as it is possible. One of the main aims of acquiring knowledge in Islam is to become Allah-conscious. In the history of Islam there were women who were narrators of Hadith, mystics, scholars, writers, poets and teachers, in their own right. They utilized their knowledge within certain precepts of Islam. The west has fabricated many myths that Muslim women are not allowed to work. These myths have no basis in Islamic law. It is natural in Islamic societies for there to be a female doctors and teachers. However, she is not required to participate in trade, vocation or professions unless necessary. A woman must receive her husband’s approval in order to work, because he may feel that her work will cause her to neglect her matrimonial duties and care of the children Muslim women just like the men are prohibited from taking on jobs that sell her femininity to make money (dancing, prostitution, modeling etc) even if her husband doesn’t mind. Apart from those jobs that are prohibited in Islam all others are lawful. A women is entitled to equal pay of equal work of equal value, this concept was established by Islam centuries ago. Although a woman can inherit from her father, children and husbands when before Islam she could not inherit at all, the rate of her inheritance is half that of a man. In order to requisite this apparent unfairness, Islam gives women many privileges e.g. dowry which is obligatory and is her own. Quran says: â€Å"And give women their dowries as a free gift† (4:4) A woman has the right to choose who she marries and shouldn’t be forced to marry anyone with out her wish. She can even have her marriage annulled in a court of law if she can prove that her parents/guardians went ahead with it against her will. Yet there is a resounding silence when the issue being raised is Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), honor killings, forced marriages, the unequal application of hadd punishments on women, or the denial of education to girls and women. All of these wrongs are perpetrated on women in the name of Islam. Genital mutilation for females is not allowed in Islam? Prophet Muhammad peace be upon him clearly prohibited mutilation or maiming of the body. While it is true that many of these violations occur across cultural and religious boundaries, the only action often taken by conservative Muslims is a condemnation of the action because it is â€Å"cultural† and not Islamic. Meanwhile, women continue to be murdered and little girls continue to be mutilated. Polygamy is a misunderstood phenomenon that is more a remedial law in Islam than anything else, used only if necessary. Monotheism is a norm in Muslim societies past and present, and one must remember that prior to Islam, men could have as many wives as they desired. so much that many women were deserted for long periods of time. The verse in the quran that legitimates polygamy was revealed after the battle of uhud, when many widows and orphans were left without care. Hence at the time polygamy was the answer. Although in some extreme circumstances e.g.when the wife is a barren, seriously ill, and mentally unstable or has a bad character. In these cases a man can marry again if he feels the presence of the second wife will benefit the wife, the children or him. However Islam insist that the man treat both wives equally in every aspect possible.The quran says: If you fear that you will not be able to deal justly with orphans, marry women of your choice , two or three or four; but if you fear that you will not be able to deal justly with them, then only one† (4:3) Islam recognizes that marriages are sacred and are a civil contract between husband and wife which should work or be dismantled if it ceases to do so. Although Islam permits divorce the prophet (pbuh) says: â€Å"Of all the things that Islam has permitted, divorce is the most hated by Allah†. This shows divorce shouldn’t be taken lightly. Divorce is a right mainly available to men (although a woman can demand to have it in a marriage contract). As well When Islam discusses the deficiencies of women; it is neither insulting them nor belittling them. Some men, unfortunately, do precisely that when they quote the words of the Prophet (peace be upon him) that women â€Å"have a deficiency in their intellect and their religion†. They take these words out of context as a means of oppressing women and putting them down. The Prophet (peace be upon him) meant something quite different. He said: â€Å"I have never seen among those who have a deficiency in their intellect and their religion anyone more capable than women of swaying the intellect of the most determined of men.† He is actually asserting here the power of women to influence men and sway their opinion. This is one of the distinctions that women, in their natures, have. He then went on to define precisely what he meant by these deficiencies. In the remainder of the hadà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½th, some women asked him: â€Å"O Messenger of Allah, what is this deficiency in our intelligence and religion?† He replied: â€Å"Isn’t it that a woman’s testimony as a witness is half of the testimony of man?† They said: â€Å"Yes.† He said: â€Å"This, then, is the deficiency in her intelligence. Isn’t it true that when she is in her menses, she leaves off prayers and fasting?† They said: â€Å"Yes.† He said: â€Å"This is the deficiency in her religion.† Therefore to every male witness there need to be two female witnesses also because of their lack of knowledge and experience women are not preferred to be positioned as judges in Islam. There is no specific directive of the Shari`ah that prohibits a woman from leading prayers. Therefore, we cannot say that Islam prohibits a woman from leading prayers. The matter actually relates to the general practice of the Prophet (pbuh), which was subsequently followed by the Muslim leaders that followed the Prophet (pbuh). This practice of the Prophet (pbuh) as well as the Muslim leaders, who followed him, subsequently became a part of the social traditions of the Muslims. Thus, it is not a directive of the Shari`ah, but a part of the Muslim cultural tradition that men, rather than women should lead prayers. This gender-based distinction, it seems, has its basis on a few important facts. For instance, although the Prophet (pbuh) encouraged Muslim women to come to the mosques to offer their obligatory prayers with the congregation, yet it was not as strong a directive for them, as it was for the Muslim men. The nature and the variance of the Prophet (pbuh)’s directive has generally resulted in a lower number of Muslim women being present in mosques, as compared to men. In many places, women are not even seen (even in lower numbers) in mosques. Thus, especially when the over whelming majority of people present in mosques consists of men, it was natural that a man was appointed as the Imam to lead the prayers. Moreover, because the Imam holds a central position in the mosque and naturally becomes the center of attention for all those who are present, it seemed a better decision that a man, rather than a woman, be appointed for this position. We obviously do not have any control over the thoughts and emotions of all those present in the mosque. Thus, to keep the minds clear of any sexual thoughts, especially in the mosques, it was felt more appropriate to appoint a man as the Imam. These are a few of the points that have played a role in the general acceptance of this socio-cultural tradition among the Muslims. The matter, as I have stated earlier does not pertain to any prohibition of the Shari`ah. â€Å"Women are very capable of taking on any job previously monopolized by men,† said Ms Hindi, a former English literature student at a college in Mecca, her home town. Women not allowed to drive cars in Saudi Arabia because of the ban on women driving in Saudi Arabia was made official only in 1990 after 47 women demonstrated against what was then a customary law by driving a convoy of cars in Riyadh. They were arrested and detained until male relatives signed undertakings that they would not violate the ban again. The ban was made official by a fatwa issued by the Council of Senior Ulama (religious scholars). â€Å"Women driving leads too many evils . . . included among these is her mixing with men without her being on her guard,† the fatwa said. â€Å"O Messenger of Allah, who is the person who has the greatest right on me with regards to kindness and attention?† He replied, â€Å"Your mother.† â€Å"Then who?† He replied, â€Å"Your mother.† â€Å"Then who?† He replied, â€Å"Your mother.† â€Å"Then who?† He replied, â€Å"Your father.† In another tradition, the Prophet advised a believer not to join the war against the Quraish in defense of Islam, but to look after his mother, saying that his service to his mother would be a cause of his salvation. Mu’awiyah, the son of Jahimah, reported that Jahimah came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and said, † Messenger of Allah! I want to join the fighting (in the path of Allah) and I have come to seek your advice.† He said, â€Å"Then remains in your mother’s service, because Paradise is under her feet.† The Prophet’s followers accepted his teachings and brought about a revolution in their social attitude towards women. They no longer considered women as mere chattels, but as an integral part of society. For the first time women were given the right to have a share in inheritance. In the new social climate, women rediscovered themselves and became highly active members of society rendering useful service during the wars which the pagan Arabs forced on the emerging Muslim umma. They carried provisions for the soldiers, nursed them, and even fought alongside them if it was necessary. It became a common sight to see women helping their husbands in the fields, carrying on trade and business independently, and going out of their homes to satisfy their needs. â€Å"Among my followers the best of men are those who are best to their wives, and the best of women are those who are best to their husbands. To each of such women is set down a reward equivalent to the reward of a thousand martyrs. Among my followers, again, the best of women are those who assist their husbands in their work, and love them dearly for everything, save what is a transgression of Allah’s laws.† The Shari’ah regards women as the spiritual and intellectual equals of men. The Shari’ah requires a man, as head of the family, to consult with his family and then to have the final say in decisions concerning it. In doing so he must not abuse his prerogative to cause any injury to his wife. The word of the Prophet (peace be upon him), ‘the queen of her house’, and this is the position a true believer is expected to give his wife. In contrast to these enlightened teachings of Islam in respect of women, Western talk of women’s liberation or emancipation is actually a disguised form of exploitation of her body, deprivation of her honour, and degradation of her soul! Manji is lesbian and has adamantly argued that the condemnation of homosexuality by most strains of traditional Islam is at odds with Qur’anic doctrine that â€Å"Allah makes excellent everything which He creates.† Her partner is Michelle Douglas, a Canadian activist. Manji has been a vocal critic of orthodox Islam, especially that treatment of women by some Muslims. She does not wear a headscarf or chador whereas most traditional Muslim women do observe the hijab. She has criticized the Palestinian leadership and the opinions of some Muslims about Israel. WOMEN IN THE QUR’AN AND THE SUNNAH Prof. Abdur Rahman I. Doi Professor and Director, Center for Islamic Legal Studies, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaira, Nigeria. In Islam there is absolutely no difference between men and women as far as their relationship to Allah is concerned, as both are promised the same reward for good conduct and the same punishment for evil conduct. The Qur’an says: And for women are rights over men similar to those of men over women. (2:226) The Qur’an, in addressing the believers, often uses the expression,’ believing men and women’ to emphasize the equality of men and women in regard to their respective duties, rights, virtues and merits. It says: For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast, for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah’s praise, for them has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward. (33:35) Enter into Paradise, you and your wives, with delight. (43:70) Who so does that which is right, and believes, whether male or female, him or her will We quicken to happy life. (16:97) The Qur’an admonishes those men who oppress or ill-treat women: The Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him) said, â€Å"Women are the twin halves of men.† The Qur’an emphasizes the essential unity of men and women in a most beautiful simile: They (your wives) are your garment and you are a garment for them. (2:187) Just as a garment hides our nakedness, so do husband and wife, by entering into the relationship of marriage, secure each other’s chastity. The garment gives comfort to the body; so does the husband find comfort in his wife’s company and she in his. â€Å"The garment is the grace, the beauty, the embellishment of the body, so too are wives to their husbands as their husbands are to them.† Islam does not consider woman â€Å"an instrument of the Devil†, but rather the Qur’an calls her muhsana – a fortress against Satan because a good woman, by marrying a man, helps him keep to the path of rectitude in his life. It is for this reason that marriage was considered by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as a most virtuous act. He said: â€Å"When a man marries, he has completed one half of his religion.† He enjoined matrimony on Muslims by saying: â€Å"Marriage is part of my way and whoever keeps away from my way is not from me (i.e. is not my follower).† The Qur’an has given the raison d’à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tre of marriage in the following words: And among His signs is this that He has created for you mates from among yourselves, that you may dwell in tranquility with them; and He has put love and mercy between you. Verily in that are signs for those who reflect. (30:21) The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was full of praise for virtuous and chaste women. He said: â€Å"The world and all things in the world are precious but the most precious thing in the world is a virtuous woman. He once told the future khalif, ‘Umar: â€Å"Shall I not inform you about the best treasure a man can hoard? It is a virtuous wife who pleases him whenever he looks towards her, and who guards herself when he is absent from her.† On other occasions the Prophet said: â€Å"The best property a man can have is a remembering tongue (about Allah), a grateful heart and a believing wife who helps him in his faith.† And again: â€Å"The world, the whole of it, is a commodity and the best of the commodities of the world is a virtuous wife.† The Prophet (peace be upon him) was most emphatic in enjoining upon Muslims to be kind to their women when he delivered his famous khutba on the Mount of Mercy at Arafat in the presence of one hundred and twenty-four thousand of his Companions who had gathered there for the Hajj al-Wada (Farewell Pilgrimage). In it he ordered those present, and through them all those Muslims who were to come later, to be respectful and kind towards women. He said: â€Å"Fear Allah regarding women. Verily you have married them with the trust of Allah, and made their bodies lawful with the word of Allah. You have got (rights) over them, and they have got (rights) over you in respect of their food and clothing according to your means.† â€Å"One who makes efforts (to help) the widow or a poor person is like a mujahid (warrior) in the path of Allah, or like one who stands up for prayers in the night and fasts in the day.† â€Å"O Messenger of Allah, who is the person who has the greatest right on me with regards to kindness and attention?† He replied, â€Å"Your mother.† â€Å"Then who?† He replied, â€Å"Your mother.† â€Å"Then who?† He replied, â€Å"Your mother.† â€Å"Then who?† He replied, â€Å"Your father.† In another tradition, the Prophet advised a believer not to join the war against the Quraish in defense of Islam, but to look after his mother, saying that his service to his mother would be a cause of his salvation. Mu’awiyah, the son of Jahimah, reported that Jahimah came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and said, † Messenger of Allah! I want to join the fighting (in the path of Allah) and I have come to seek your advice.† He said, â€Å"Then remain in your mother’s service, because Paradise is under her feet.† The Prophet’s followers accepted his teachings and brought about a revolution in their social attitude towards women. They no longer considered women as a mere chattels, but as an integral part of society. For the first time women were given the right to have a share in inheritance. In the new social climate, women rediscovered themselves and became highly active members of society rendering useful service during the wars which the pagan Arabs forced on the emerging Muslim umma. They carried provisions for the soldiers, nursed them, and even fought alongside them if it was necessary. It became a common sight to see women helping their husbands in the fields, carrying on trade and business independently, and going out of their homes to satisfy their needs. â€Å"Among my followers the best of men are those who are best to their wives, and the best of women are those who are best to their husbands. To each of such women is set down a reward equivalent to the reward of a thousand martyrs. Among my followers, again, the best of women are those who assist their husbands in their work, and love them dearly for everything, save what is a transgression of Allah’s laws.† The Shari’ah regards women as the spiritual and intellectual equals of men. The Shari’ah requires a man, as head of the family, to consult with his family and then to have the final say in decisions concerning it. In doing so he must not abuse his prerogative to cause any injury to his wife. The words of the Prophet (peace be upon him), ‘the queen of her house’, and this is the position a true believer is expected to give his wife. In contrast to these enlightened teachings of Islam in respect of women, Western talk of women’s liberation or emancipation is actually a disguised form of exploitation of her body, deprivation of her honour, and degradation of her soul! http://www.allaahuakbar.net/womens/rights_of_women_guaranteed_by_islam.htm A COLLECTION OF REFERENCES FROM THE QURAN AND HADEETH ABOUT THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN GUARANTEED BY ISLAM Spiritual Equality of Women and Men Allah has got ready forgiveness and tremendous rewards for the Muslim men and women; the believing men and women; the devout men and women; the truthful men and women; the patiently suffering men and women; the humble men and women; the almsgiving men and women; the fasting men and women, the men and women who guard their chastity; and the men and women who are exceedingly mindful of Allah. (Al-Ahzab 33:35) Attitudes towards women O ye who believe! Ye are forbidden to inherit women against their will. Nor should ye treat them with harshness, that ye may take away part of the dower ye have given them,-except where they have been guilty of open lewdness; on the contrary live with them on a footing of kindness and equity. If ye take a dislike to them it may be that ye dislike a thing, and Allah brings about through it a great deal of good. (An-Nisa 4:19) Collaboration and consultation The believing men and women, are associates and helpers of each other. They (collaborate) to promote all that is beneficial and discourage all that is evil; to establish prayers and give alms, and to obey Allah and his Messenger. Those are the people whom Allah would grant mercy. Indeed Allah is Mighty and Wise. (Al-Taubah 9:71) Women’s Right to Attend Mosques Narrated Ibn Umar: The Prophet (p.b.u.h) said, â€Å"Allow women to go to the Mosques at night.† (Bukhari Volume 2, Book 13, Number 22) Ibn Umar reported: The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: Do not deprive women of their share of the mosques, when they seek permission from you. Bilal said: By Allah, we would certainly prevent them. ‘Abdullah said: I say that the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said it and you say: We would certainly prevent them! (Sahih Muslim Book 004, Number 0891) The Common Performance of Ablutions Narrated Ibn Umar: â€Å"It used to be that men and women would perform ablutions together in the time of the Messenger of Allah’s assembly.† (Bukhari: 1: Ch. 45, Book of Ablution) Women’s Right of Proposal Narrated Sahl: A woman came to the Prophet, and presented herself to him (for marriage). He said, â€Å"I am not in need of women these days.† Then a man said, â€Å"O Allah’s Apostle! Marry her to me.† The Prophet asked him, â€Å"What have you got?† He said, â€Å"I have got nothing.† The Prophet said, â€Å"Give her something, even an iron ring.† He said, â€Å"I have got nothing.† The Prophet asked (him), â€Å"How much of the Quran do you know (by heart)?† He said, â€Å"So much and so much.† The Prophet said, â€Å"I have married her to you for what you know of the Quran.† (Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 72) Women’s Right of Permission Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet said, â€Å"A matron should not be given in marriage except after consulting her; and a virgin should not be given in marriage except after her permission.† The people asked, â€Å"O Allah’s Apostle! How can we know her permission?† He said, â€Å"Her silence (indicates her permission).† (Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 67) The Right of Women not to be Forced Narrated Ibn ‘Abbas: Barira’s husband was a slave called Mughith, as if I am seeing him now, going behind Barira and weeping with his tears flowing down his beard. The Prophet said to ‘Abbas, â€Å"O ‘Abbas ! are you not astonished at the love of Mughith for Barira and the hatred of Barira for Mughith?† The Prophet then said to Barira, â€Å"Why don’t you return to him?† She said, â€Å"O Allah’s Apostle! Do you order me to do so?† He said, â€Å"No, I only intercede for him.† She said, â€Å"I am not in need of him.† (Bukhari: Volume 7, Book 63, Number 206) The Characteristics of a Believing Man Narrated AbuHurayrah: Allah’s Messenger (pbuh) said: a believing man should not hate a believing woman; if he dislikes one of her characteristics, he will be pleased with another. (Muslim Book 8, Number 3469) The Education of Women Narrated Abu Said: A woman came to Allah’s Apostle and said, â€Å"O Allah’s Apostle! Men (only) benefit by your teachings, so please devote to us from (some of) your time, a day on which we may come to you so that you may teach us of what Allah has taught you.† Allah’s Apostle said, â€Å"Gather on such-and-such a day at such-and-such a place.† They gathered and Allah’s Apostle came to them and taught them of what Allah had taught him. (Bukhari Volume 9, Book 92, Number 413) On the Treatment of Women Narrated Mu’awiyah al-Qushayri: I went to the Apostle of Allah (pbuh) and asked him: â€Å"What do you say (command) about our wives?† He replied: â€Å"Give them food what you have for yourself, and clothe them by which you clothe yourself, and do not beat them, and do not revile them.† (Sunan Abu Dawud: Book 11, Number 2139) â€Å"The best of you is one who is best towards his family and I am best towards the family†. (At-Tirmithy). â€Å"None but a noble man treats women in an honourable manner. And none but an ignoble treats women disgracefully†. (At-Tirmithy). A Husband’s Attitude ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab (RA) said that a man came to his house to complain about his wife. On reaching the door of his house, he hears ‘Umar’s wife shouting at him and reviling him. Seeing this, he was about to go back, thinking that ‘Umar himself was in the same position and, therefore, could hardly suggest any solution for his problem. ‘Umar (RA) saw the man turn back, so he called him and enquired about the purpose of his visit. He said that he had come with a complaint against his wife, but turned back on seeing the Caliph in the same position. ‘Umar (RA) told him that he tolerated the excesses of his wife for she had certain rights against him. He said, â€Å"Is it not true that she prepares food for me, washes clothes for me and suckles my children, thus saving me the expense of employing a cook, a washerman and a nurse, though she is not legally obliged in any way to do any of these things? Besides, I enjoy peace of mind because of her and am kept away from indecent acts on account of her. I therefore tolerate all her excesses on account of these benefits. It is right that you should also adopt the same attitude.† quoted in Rahman, Role of Muslim Women page 149 The Prophet’s Disapproval of Women Beaters Patient behavior was the practice of the Prophet, even when his wife dared to address him harshly. Once his mother-in-law- saw her daughter strike him with her fist on his noble chest. When the enraged mother -in-law began to reproach her daughter, the Prophet smilingly said, â€Å"Leave her alone; they do worse than that.† And once Abu Bakr, his father-in-law, was invited to settle some misunderstanding between him and Aishah. The Prophet said to her, â€Å"Will you speak, or shall I speak?† Aisha said, â€Å"You speak, but do not say except the truth.† Abu Bakr was so outraged that he immediately struck her severely, forcing her to run and seek protection behind the back of the Prophet. Abu Bakr said, â€Å"O you the enemy of herself! Does the Messenger of Allah say but the truth?† The Prophet said, â€Å"O Abu Bakr, we did not invite you for this [harsh dealing with Aishah], nor did we anticipate it.† quoted in: Mutual Rights and Obligations http://www.allaahuakbar.net/womens/women_sharia_and_oppression.htm A lot of attention has been focused on the issue of Muslim women and human rights since September 11, almost all of it by non Muslims. Once again, images of women swathed in black veils or blue burqas are de rigeur, as the media soberly reminds us that Muslim women are not considered equals to men in Islam, and that they are oppressed even by the moderate regimes in the Muslim world. From the Muslims, we have one of two reactions. The first is the reaction of the â€Å"liberal, reformist, secular† Muslims. They believe that Shari’a oppresses women, and that we need to completely overhaul it, or toss out sections of the Qur’an that are â€Å"uncomfortable,† or institute secular forms of government that separate the sacred from the legal all together. These are the same Muslims who equate Hijab with oppression, and who support the denial of free speech rights to â€Å"Islamists† (all the while, crying for their rights to free speech in countries where it is denied). They take their political thought not from Islamic sources, but from feminism, socialism, and capitalism. Naturally, it is to these Muslims that the Western media turns when it wants a â€Å"Muslim† perspective on â€Å"Muslim issues.† On the other side, we have the organizers of the mainstream conservative Muslims, the leaders of our civic societies, advocacy groups, and associations. When presented with instances of women’s oppression in the Islamic world, these Muslims, almost always men, respond defensively. They cart out examples of women’s oppression in the Western world, or worse, they address the issue by lecturing the questioner about the virtues of the Ideal Place of Women in Ideal Islam. In other words, they treat the ideal that we are all aspire to as the reality on the ground. Pressed into taking a stand on real life issues, they retreat in anger. â€Å"That’s culture, not Islam, it has nothing to do with me as a Muslim,† they sniff. Who speaks for them? Most often, it is the United Nations, human rights groups, and feminist organizations, led by people who have no foundations of knowledge in Islam, and who often have a real antipathy for Islam. While the Feminist Majority Fund was selling swatches of â€Å"burqa† and petitioning the government for action on behalf of Afghan women, the leaders of our Islamic societies stayed silent. Publicly, many Islamic leaders and organizations disassociated themselves from the Taliban, but other than denying them entry into the Organization of Islamic Conferences (OIC), they took no action to petition the Taliban for change from an Islamic view, or form any sort of Islamic opposition. Perhaps this is because when any Islamic organization or individual Muslim attempts to change or speak out about injustices towards Muslim women, the rest of the community circles the wagons. These lone souls are labeled â€Å"radical feminists,† and accused of attempting to undermine Islam. Strangely, when a Muslim woman’s Islamic rights are violated, many organizations are eager to speak out and petition. For example, when Merve Kavacki was denied her seat in the Turkish Parliament because of her headscarf (and later stripped of her citizenship), Muslim groups were quick to condemn the Turkish government, as they should have. In many Western Muslim circles, Merve has been elevated to a symbol of the struggle muhajabat women face in secular societies. Yet there is a resounding silence when the issue being raised is Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), honor killings, forced marriages, the unequal application of hadd punishments on women, or the denial of education to girls and women. All of these wrongs are perpetrated on women in the name of Islam. While it is true that many of these violations occur across cultural and religious boundaries, the only action often taken by conservative Muslims is a condemnation of the action because it is â€Å"cultural† and not Islamic. Meanwhile, women continue to be murdered and little girls continue to be mutilated. In Africa, conservative sheikhs teamed up with women’s rights advocates to educate people about the harms of Female Genital Mutilation. These people get very little mention in the Western media, which, of course, paints the â€Å"Islamists† as the opponents of an enlightened, secular minority of liberal Muslims. About a year ago, a small band of conservative Muslim women, almost all of us from the West, came up with the idea of starting a Muslim women’s human rights group, to petition and advocate for the rights of Muslim women as they are given in the Shari’a of Islam. Although slow to start, we have managed to form a basis from which to work, and have taken up our first case. Right now, a Muslim woman in Nigeria is under a death sentence from the Shari’a court for the crime of adultery. The situation came to the attention of the authorities when the man who impregnated her decided to confess his crime to the police, rather than pay the child support that her father asked of him. There are many glaring errors in the case, from a classical, â€Å"Orthodox† fiqh point of view. These errors (which would aid the woman) are not coming from a â€Å"reformist reinterpretation† of Shari’a, these errors are so great that any of the qadis of the past would have thrown the case against her out. Prophet Mohammed, sallalahu aleyhi wa salaam, was mocked and assaulted because of his strong and courageous stance on the status of women. He came with a message that lifted women up and gave them dignity. Fourteen hundred years later, we have descended back into the dark pit of Jahiliya, and Muslim women around the world find themselves cast into the same slavery that the Prophet, sallalahu aleyhi wa salaam, was sent to liberate them from. It does not make you a â€Å"radical feminist† to decry honor killings and volunteer for peaceful campaigns to educate and change laws. Raising your voice against Female Genital Mutilation does not mean you want to â€Å"undermine Islam.† To the contrary, working against these injustices in the way of Allah is a manifestation of the desire to uplift Islam and the Muslim people. When the Taliban decided to deny education to any girl over a certain age, it is the conservative Muslims, the ones who profess adherence to â€Å"Qur’an and Sunnah† that should have spoken the loudest against this. The longer we stay silent, the more people, both Muslim and non Muslim, will begin to equate â€Å"Shar’ia† with the oppression of women.

Feminist Research Methods

Feminist Research Methods Introduction It is imperative to understand what entails feminist research methods before discussing the ways that these methods can be used to empower women. It is vital to get clarity of why these particular methods are referred to as ‘feminist research methods’.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Feminist Research Methods specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The study of methods and methodology shows that the unique differences are found in the motives of the research, the knowledge that the research seeks to expound, and the concerns of the researchers and the research itself. Feminist Research Methods Empowers A feminist research is an investigation that is conducted by women who recognize themselves as feminists and this investigation has a specific purpose for finding out (a ‘why’), certain types of questions and issues are to be known about a topic (‘what’) (Lather 571). Femini st studies use identifiable methods of finding out how and these characteristically base their success on the experience of women in a world where women are seen as subordinates to men. Feminist research methods, if they exist, then how are they different from the usual research methods in the conventional study? In response to these concerns, there are actually no distinctive feminist research methods from the conventional ones. They are innovations to the discipline-based methods made to the usual survey methodologies, experimentation and ethnography methods (Lather 572). The main argument of feminist research methods in this context explores the viewpoints of women like in networking, conversation, genealogy and multi-person consciousness. Partly, the dedication to the societal change of a situation where women are recognized for their contribution to the society entails a commitment to the subjects of the research (Monkman Stacki 174). A feminist research addresses these concer ns to a greater length. It can therefore be seen as a way of raising consciousness for the subjects.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More When women get involved in this type of studies as active members of the research process, they need space to question and resolutely assess their experiences (Lather 575). These methods also allow recognition of the relationships and the links that connect places, events and their lives and social world (Ramazanoğlu 137). The empowerment comes in a way that the research methods bring out education and knowledge and the confirmation that women’s experiences are part of a greater social structure. Feminist research methods also help to show that women contribute to development of meaning and participate in processes of analysis based on their experiences (Ramazanoğlu 138). The discussion among women and the availability of femi nist research methods are an opportunity to try women’s abilities in a male dominated community. There are social struggles through power, culture, class and gender. Through all these, women have to be recognized and appreciated (Ramazanoğlu 139). This is what emancipates and empowers the women. Even though the feminist research is intended to empower women, it often faces tough challenges. Looking at it from the women’s viewpoint, the attainment of knowledge can help to restructure the power imbalances in the research relationship and hence achieving the objectives of informing the society (Lather 577). In summary, the advent of this type of study design, the feminist research has played a very big role in reconstruction of the domain of conventional research. This has been exposed by new perspectives of research showing the reality of the social status. Issues like gender ethics, discrimination and female subjugation have helped bring out women consciousness empow ering them by offering legal reason for social change concerning issues of gender which adversely affect humanity (Bryson 67). What Methods and Tools Would You Employ To Empower Women In Development Projects? At a time when women across the world and especially in Asia are more exposed to the impact of economic downturn the ever before, examining the methods and tools used to safeguard and improve their participation is development project is necessary. Many international organizations for women empowerment focus on initiatives of poverty reduction.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Feminist Research Methods specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These projects help in addressing the basic needs of the targeted people (Bryson 67). Besides, these organizations focus mainly on provision of the necessary infrastructure which facilitate women’s empowerment like construction of roads, drilling of water and so on (Parvin e t al 48). Essentially, a project which provides safe and clean drinking water helps the women to significantly reduce the time they take to do their household chores. In most cases these have been the tasks of women. As a result, they get more time to take part in the income generating activities in their communities and the girls get an opportunity to attend school rather staying at home to do these household tasks (Bryson 69). In such cases that women are able to manage their time well and have some spare time that is not utilized by activities outsides their home. There are high chances that this liberated time could end up being quickly occupied by other new household tasks again. Whereas the connection between the empowerment of women and the community development is obvious, the connection between these two factors is not totally informal and subordination of women does not come out of poverty per se (Oakley 45). Because of the tendency of the problem to affect the entire soci ety, development of infrastructure, provision of income generating initiatives, support of the women self help groups and institutions of legislations that protect against discriminations are the tools for empowering women. These methods have a broader goal which is wider that human development and human development on the other hand is much greater than empowerment (Bryson 69). Nonetheless, there is significant overlap of the ideas from each of these concepts. The overall definition of what entails women empowerment is that ‘they are all processes that women need to take charge of and own in order to improve their position in the society’.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The elements of ownership and control need a wider range of opportunities where women can choose from and this understanding of overlaps the concept of human development when it is looked at from the perspective that empowerment is a process of increasing the number of options for survival (Oakley 45). In the Asian Countries The ability of women in achieving better heights in the society is often limited by a number of factors and on top of it all is the agency. Essentially, there is a limitation of women’s own ideas of what they can possibly do by themselves (Parvin et al 48). There have been laws especially those fashioned in line with religious beliefs and influenced by patriarchal society defining what is legal or illegal for women to do. Besides the societal norms are much stronger and selfish in defining what the woman should and should not be doing (Oakley 48). These beliefs and influences the activities women can engage in especially their ideas of empowering themselv es. Many of them having lived under such influences have internalized views like ‘I am a woman and I am able to do or not to do this because it’s against the society values, attitude and previous experiences’ (Oakley 48). There are also objective limits restricting the activities that are acceptable and not acceptable for women. In Asian nations, women have mostly been pushed aside by the ownership laws, political rights, access to employment since the woman’s place was determined to be at home, and the inheritance laws where women do not have right to inherit family property (Parvin et al 48). There is also the limit to the space and activities of women in other societal concepts and therefore tools of empowerment for Asian women do not have particular agent of change but facilitate empowerment as a process of change to be driven by women. Agency and education An important tool in Asia has been to build the agency and also ensure the people own and feel t hat sense of agency. In Asia, the ability of women to define their goals and act upon them to better their lives is pertinent (Parvin et al 48). The sense of agency is therefore an internal aspect of feeling able to act and also having that potential to do so. Agency is build by providing education. It’s quite clear that lack of it or poor quality education for girls and women contribute greatly to their low status in the society. Many girls in Asia have previously not attended schools because they were required to stay at home and take care of the home with their mothers. When they marry their role is to take care of the home, children and the husband (Parvin et al 51). The community at large must confront the attitude and assumptions which keep girls out of school. It is proper to have creative methods of changing the viewpoints of the society concerning education for girls (Kumar 110). To set up the platform for increasing the enrolment of girls, some laws must be stringen tly applied. Child labour should be abolished for good so that school going children can have only one job, to attend school. India and Pakistan have suffered considerable problems with child labour issues (Parvin et al 56). There should not be cases of early and forced marriage. These have been the primary factor why girls in Asia like in Saudi Arabia, Oman, India and other nations in the region have been abandoning school. With many activists outreach organization, the problem has significantly reduced (Letherby 123). For Asian women, social, political and economical empowerment has had an insightful impact on the position of the women. Generally, women’s position has allowed them to cause impacts that bring changes economic development and favors development equality and enjoyment of human rights. There have been considerable changes and more and more women have gotten into schools, university and even formal employment like clerical work, service industry and in manufactu ring sector. Even though today the proportion is still small, it is growing at a considerable consistent rate (Oakley 49). The Asian nations are adversely affected – especially the idea of sex selection abortion targeting girls. Most Asian have now set the primary school education compulsory for both girls and boys in many nations in East and South East Asia. More women are enrolling in secondary schools also. South Korea and Thailand have enrollment is the same for both boys and girls. On the other hand, Philippines’ enrolment of girls is rising above that of boys. Other countries like India, the proportion of women attending college is increasing yet it remains lower compared to that of men especially for college and university enrollment (UNESCO 2000). Countries like Iran Kuwait, Bahrain, Yemen, Saudi Arabia and Qatar among other has strategized to empower women by education. This is because education is the only resource that can improve individual’s welfare in terms of economy and social advancement. Middle East countries used to exclude girls in education but this has changed dramatically in the recent times. The secondary and college education has been offering the girls the skills and knowledge to increase labor force. The challenge to this strategy has been that even though more girls are getting enrolment, sometimes they learn very little to allow then to prepare to compete and survive 21st century job market. Access has increased significantly but the quality is a challenge. The Arab Human Development report shows that the ability of access to education has not been able to offer the required credential for the women to get into employment and compete favorably in Arab societies. Power structures and Gender-based violence In order to act on the goals an individual sets, she must be aware on the implications of the power system on these goals. There are norms, legal frameworks and other discriminatory forces in the community (Nap les 98). Gaining awareness of all these is hence very important. Women in Asia have been subordinate to different power structures for so long. These structures include social class, gender, ethnicity and even place of residence (Naples 98). Unless women get awareness rising, they will continue to suffer under these gendered factors. Without awareness of these structures, women cannot act; therefore there will be no change. Because of the power structures that are oppressive, women have suffered domestic violence as victims of sexual, physical and psychological abuse. These harmful practices are mostly gender biased since Asian culture has rated men as superior gender (Naples 98). Human rights in the past have not been discussed openly and strongly (Letherby 123). As much as gender awareness is an individual thing, empowerment comes to a group and societal level. Women can come together and motivate each other for action (Letherby 123), For instance, the fight against violence campa igns done by women groups. Rising above the gendered power structures is what give the women power to stand up for their rights and human begins since basic rights like right to respect and dignity are inalienable (Naples 98). Empowering efforts would entail provision of medical care for victims of gender or sexual violence, psychological (counselling) services and legal action for the perpetrators. Self Esteem and Economic Development Living in a community where women are subordinates and subject to different types of oppression habitually causes naturalization of the predominant power relations. These often happen to a greater level that those oppressed begin to consider their powerlessness as natural cause or a justified phenomenon (Naples 99). It may lead to self oppression in which feminist theorists refer to the phenomenon as internalized oppression. The concept of building women self-esteem is that they must not feel that they are destined to be under men as a matter of fate rather to make them feel worthy, valuable and deserving of better regard in the society. This way, they can stand up for themselves and build better future based on their ambitious goals that come with high self esteem (Letherby 123). At a communal level, self-esteem develops into the feeling of the ‘right to exist’ and be successful in life competing equally against men. With shared goals and options, women can have a sense of belonging and therefore rise above the gendered power structure. Education is one way of attaining the self-esteem but in this case, setting up income generating activities for women would give them power and confidence faster (Ramazanoğlu 137). Women will be more confident and will have resources to help them fight oppression and take charge of their lives. Conclusion There are several ways that the issues of feminist research methods and empowerment of women can be addressed to attain better understanding of these issues. Feminist see it as a problem when women are ‘left out’ out of positions of power, history and even the daily events and communications. They tend to ask questions regarding circumstances that lead to women being ‘left out’. The problem comes when there is general assumption that it was deliberate and the root cause was men’s fear and contempt of women. To have a solution to such concerns, feminist research methods were devised to make demands against the inevitable resistance from men. These researches are perceived to be targeting to change social institutions and scientific knowledge. To get to the power needed to stand up against men, women have been striving to get permanent solutions like getting their own homes, increasing education and income, seeking for equal pay and insisting on equality in all aspects of life. Bryson, Valerie. Feminist Political Theory: An Introduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. 2003 Kumar, Ranjit. Research Methodology: A Step-By-Ste p Guide for Beginners, Sage, p. 110 Lather, Patti. ‘Feminist Perspectives on Empowering Research Methodologies,’ Women’s Studies International Forum, 2002, Vol. 11, Issue 6, pp. 569-82 Letherby, Gayle. Feminist Research in Theory and Practice, Buckingham: UK, Open University Press. 2003. Monkman, Karen and Stacki, Sandra. ‘Change Through Empowerment Processes: Womens stories from South Asia and Latin America,’ Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 2003, Vol. 33, Issue 2, pp. 173-189 Naples, Nancy. Feminism and Method: Ethnography, Discourse Analysis, and Activist Research, New York: Routledge. 2003 Oakley, Ann., Experiments in Knowing: Gender and Method in the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Polity, 2000 Parvin, Gulsan., Ahsan, Reazaul., and Chowdhury, Mahmudur., ‘Women Empowerment Performance Of Income Generating Activities Supported By Rural Women Empowerment Creation Project (RWECP): A Case Study In Dumuria Thana, Bangla desh,’ The journal of Geo-Environment, 2004, Vol. 4, issue 3, pp. 47-61 Ramazanoğlu, Caroline. Feminist Methodology: Challenges And Choices, Thousand Oaks: CA, Sage Publications. 2002. The Arab Human Development report, Challenges to human security in the Arab Countries. Report. UN Development Programme, 2002. Retrieved from www.arab-hdr.org/publications/other/ahdr/ahdr2002e.pdf UNESCO Regional Office for Science and Technology. Annual Report 2000: UNESCO Annual Report. Cairo, UNESCO Regional Office for Science and Technology, 2000

Free Essays on Stolen Credit Card

Your credit card is stolen. You place a phone call to the number provided in your tourist guide or in the local daily press. You provide your details and you cancel your card. You block it. In a few minutes, it should be transferred to the stop-list available to the authorization centres worldwide. From that moment on, no thief will be able to fraudulently use your card. You can sigh in relief. The danger is over. But is it ? It is definitely not. To understand why, we should first review the intricate procedure involved. In principle, the best and safest thing to do is call the authorization centre of the bank that issued your card (the issuer bank). Calling the number published in the media is second best because it connects the cardholder to a â€Å"volunteer† bank, which caters for the needs of all the issuers of a given card. Some service organizations (such as IAPA - the International Air Passengers Association) provide a similar service. The â€Å"catering bank† accepts the call, notes down the details of the cardholder and prepares a fax containing the instruction to cancel the card. The cancellation fax is then sent on to the issuing bank. The details of all the issuing banks are found in special manuals published by the clearing and payments associations of all the banks that issue a specific card. All the financial institutions that issue Mastercards, Eurocards and a few other more minor cards in Europe are members of Europay International (EPI). Here lies the first snag : the catering bank often mistakes the identity of the issuer. Many banks share the same name or are branches of a network. Banks with identical names can exist in Prague, Budapest and Frankfurt, or Vienna, for instance. Should a fax cancelling the card be sent to the wrong bank - the card will simply not be cancelled until it is too late. By the time the mistake is discovered, the card is usually thoroughly abused and the financial means of the... Free Essays on Stolen Credit Card Free Essays on Stolen Credit Card Your credit card is stolen. You place a phone call to the number provided in your tourist guide or in the local daily press. You provide your details and you cancel your card. You block it. In a few minutes, it should be transferred to the stop-list available to the authorization centres worldwide. From that moment on, no thief will be able to fraudulently use your card. You can sigh in relief. The danger is over. But is it ? It is definitely not. To understand why, we should first review the intricate procedure involved. In principle, the best and safest thing to do is call the authorization centre of the bank that issued your card (the issuer bank). Calling the number published in the media is second best because it connects the cardholder to a â€Å"volunteer† bank, which caters for the needs of all the issuers of a given card. Some service organizations (such as IAPA - the International Air Passengers Association) provide a similar service. The â€Å"catering bank† accepts the call, notes down the details of the cardholder and prepares a fax containing the instruction to cancel the card. The cancellation fax is then sent on to the issuing bank. The details of all the issuing banks are found in special manuals published by the clearing and payments associations of all the banks that issue a specific card. All the financial institutions that issue Mastercards, Eurocards and a few other more minor cards in Europe are members of Europay International (EPI). Here lies the first snag : the catering bank often mistakes the identity of the issuer. Many banks share the same name or are branches of a network. Banks with identical names can exist in Prague, Budapest and Frankfurt, or Vienna, for instance. Should a fax cancelling the card be sent to the wrong bank - the card will simply not be cancelled until it is too late. By the time the mistake is discovered, the card is usually thoroughly abused and the financial means of the...

Turner Thesis essays

Turner Thesis essays Fredrick Jackson Turner developed the thesis that the American West created and reinforced the American ideals of: equality, democracy, opportunity, and individualism. I disagree with Turners thesis and feel that the American West created just the opposite. It created a period of inopportunity and inequality especially between the rich and the poor classes of the time period. There are many things to show that Turners thesis was off beam. The Homestead Act was one such thing. This act gave every person who wanted it the opportunity to take free land. However, the government gave more plots of land to important people that they did to ordinary people. Also, land speculators snatched up big portions of land and held on to them so that they could sell them for profit at a later time. This left the ordinary people with much less land to live on and much less opportunity. This shows inequality between the different classes of this time period. Another thing to show inequality between the different classes in the period of 1865 to 1900 was the new version of the reaper invented by Cyrus McCormick. This was expensive and not all could afford it, once again showing unequal opportunity. This led to a disadvantage for the poorer folk and left them with much more labor. The people who could afford this reaper profited more than those who didnt, thus showing inequality between the rich and poor. A final example that showed how Turners thesis was erroneous was the Sand Creek Massacre. Seven hundred Colorado drunkards marched their way to the Indians fort and started to maim and mutilate them. They ended up killing a lot of Indians. This is obviously unequal treatment between the whites and the Indians. The whites could freely kill Indians on a whim without any punishment. Indians were forced to leave their lands, move onto reservations, and flee their homelands. In essence, Native America...

Employee Engagemet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Employee Engagemet - Essay Example Various strategies and tactics which focus on eliciting employee Engagement have been massively influenced by the intensive research of various organizational scholars and researchers. According to Armstrong & Baron (2000), the optimum level of skill, task variety, significance of the task and task identity which has brought along the state of employee engagement is directly connected with the concept of job enrichment. From the perspective of employee engagement, an organization needs its company managers to define specific organizational goals and objectives which are realistic and vivid and are achievable. To constantly engage employees and make them feel a part of the company, an organization has to appreciate their publicly if their employees have been to achieve the company objectives and should train and develop employees who have been unable to demonstrate satisfactory performance (Cartwright & Holmes, 2006). One of the key components of an elicit employee engagement strategy is that they should be able to clearly communicate an organization’s strategy and should also help in fostering healthy relationships with their employees. A company must be able to clearly demonstrate how important the consistent performance of their employees is to the company and have to prove that its employees have been valued as valuable contributors to the company’s operational activities and should also provide them with a sense of empowerment (Zadek, 2001). Employee voice - An employee’s view regarding the overall significance of his job and his organization has a much more significant influence on his customer service and loyalty towards his organization, in comparison with all the other employee factors. Engaging managers. One of the most important tool for managers for improving employee performance is communication and staff engagement. In order to provide the employees with a sense of

The Debate on Capital Punishment in Canada Essay

The Debate on Capital Punishment in Canada - Essay Example e history of capital punishment in Canada dates back to 1749 when Peter Cartcel was hanged to death after he was convicted of the murder of one person and injuring two other people (Matthiassen, MÃ ¶ller and Forsman, 2003.). That act became the beginning of capital punishment in Canada and has remained in the law books of the country since then. But looking at the fact that the life of a person is the most expensive treasure that any one can possess, I oppose the capital punishment, which prescribes that those who take life must have their lives taken. From a legal perspective, am against capital punishment in Canada because people can be accused wrongly of the murder of other people and once death penalty is prescribed for such people, it will not be possible to restore their lives after they are latter found to be innocent. There remain several accounts in the legal system of Canada whereby people who have been convicted of murder cases have appealed their cases and own (SacKinnon, 1999). This means that any hasty decisions and actions that were taken to prescribe the capital punishment for these people would have deprived these people forever and there would have been no means of reversing their judgment. Meanwhile, the laws of the land demand that all people who are accused of cases have the right to appeal in higher courts of hearing (Mathiassen and Ahsberg, 2009,). Essentially, any person who is given the capital punishment and eventually executed will be denied that precious right to appeal. What is more, the laws are very silent on the number of years within which a person may appeal his or her judgment. Therefore, if people who are accused of murder are speared their lives, they will be in a better position to benefit from the law of appeal in many years to come so that they can have criminal charges leveled against them reversed. On humanitarian grounds, there can virtually be no argument that supports the killing of human life as the human life is very

American Constitution Law 1.1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

American Constitution Law 1.1 - Essay Example Three hours later, the officers again sought to enter Miss Mapp’s house but still Miss Mapp refused to let them in. The police officers coercively opened one of the doors and accessed the house. Miss Mapp insisted that the police officers to produce search warrant. One of the police officers produced a paper claiming to be a search warrant, which Miss Mapp grabbed and concealed it in her bosom. A struggle emerged in which the law enforcers took the paper and in turn, they handcuffed Miss Mapp on the basis that she has been aggressive in rejecting their official rescue of the search warrant. The police officers forcibly took Miss Mapp upstairs where they searched her concealed items, closet, and some suitcases. In addition, they also searched her personal papers and photo album. The police officers moved on to search the kitchen, children bedroom, and dining hall. In the course of the forceful search, the police officers managed to get the obscene materials they wanted (Clancy, 2008). During the trial of the appellant, no search warrant was produced. The Ohio Supreme court held that it was reasonable that the conviction should be quashed or reversed. This is because the approaches or methods used by police officers to get the evidence were directed in a manner as to offend or insult a sense of justice but the court realized that the evidence had not been obtained from defendant’s person by application of offensive or brutal force against the defendant. In addition, the court asserted that even if the search were done in absence of legal authority or unreasonably by the police officers, it is not stopped from utilizing the unconstitutionally and unreasonably seized evidence at the trial (Clancy, 2008). The fourteenth amendment does not prohibit the use of evidence gathered by unreasonable search and seizure. Therefore, in this case the court held that there was probable and reasonable jurisdiction to try

The comparison of the topic of genocide presented in the two movies Research Paper

The comparison of the topic of genocide presented in the two movies about the Holocaust - Research Paper Example Through this paper, the discussion will present the ways, in which American movies have presented the European event, and more importantly, how the perception of topics like genocide in the holocaust has been altered by the presentations of American film. The two movies are representative of the events of the holocaust, mainly because both deal with the events covered, from a different point of view. Further, previously developed viewpoints about the events of the holocaust have been altered by the release of the different media accounts. It is important to note that the Nazi holocaust is different from the holocaust –which is the media presentation of the holocaust – in the American society. The main issue, in this case, is that some aspects of the events, including the area of genocide have been altered, as a way of safeguarding the interests of the audience. Comparison between the Diary of Anne Frank and the Pawnbroker During the period between the conclusion of the war and the start of the 1960s, the events of the holocaust had no considerable influences on America’s film industry. Similar to the case of other art forms, the theme spurred less interest. The case is evident from the fact that, only a few – and often not successful – books covered the subject. This case could be the result of the view that the events did not warrant artistic exposure, but were those to be left to historians only. In 1956, the first movie on the events of the holocaust was made, by the name of ‘Night and fog’, which also had little influence in America, possibly, because it was done in French. Following the context narrated before, ‘the diary of Anne Frank’ was staged, first as a play in 1956, and later cast as a movie in 1959, which caused major influence in the presentation of the holocaust. The Pawnbroker tries to present a connection between the sufferings of the Jews at camps, to the case of the Afro-Americans s uffering at Harlem. The problem with attempting to develop a relationship between the two is that it destroys the historical record of the event. The movie shows the story of a professor who lost the wife and children at detention camps, and is shown as one running a pawnshop at Harlem. The many deaths are a clear representation of the deaths taking place at the death camps, which points to the genocide. Further, the account of the disturbing deaths of the wife and the children, bring to the viewer, a feeling closer to that experienced by the victims of the genocide. The movie goes ahead to expose the viewers, to the highly painful past of the survivor of the genocide, Mr. Sol Nazerman. Emphasis is channeled towards the impact of the past, on the survivor’s present life, which cripples his life in a traumatized manner. Sol’s life portrays the torture suffered by Jews; especially the many deaths taking place there, which were many to the level of warranting the situatio n to be referred as genocide. Therefore, this movie presents the genocide that took place during the holocaust more representative of the historical event, when compared to the case of the diary of Anne Frank. Through the diary of Anne Frank, the topic of genocide – which was aimed at the Jews – is generalized; in a way that, it is presented not to

Developmental Psychology Unit 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Developmental Psychology Unit 6 - Essay Example ocial temperament can make an individual abusive without his even being aware of it, because he is not in touch with what is considered socially acceptable behaviour. There are also factors that influence partners of abusers to remain in the abusive relationship. They may have psychological issues, such as an extreme need for love and affection and low self-esteem. An important factor is cultural orientation. South American, Asian and Arab nationals would tend to be more positively regarded if they remained with their abusive husbands, admired as being more patient and forbearing. On the other hand, European nationals would leave immediately. The most important step society should take is to increase awareness of the problem through education and information dissemination. For those already in abusive relationships, shelters and support services should be provided, because there may be psychological or physical barriers to her leaving her partner. Free legal help must also be provided such women. Generally, the subject had a happy childhood with family, friends and peers. There were some times, however, when he felt depressed because he perceived his parents favored his younger siblings over him. He was an only child until about four years old, and though he welcomed the arrival of a brother and sister, when he was about 8 years old he felt that his parents made him do more of the house chores than his siblings. Of course, his brother and sister was only about four or five then, but that did not occur to him at the time, and he disliked having to be made to baby sit them because he could not go out to play. But he felt he should not disappoint his parents, so he just felt oppressed. However, when his parents did give him attention and conversed with him about the world of work and how responsibility and rights go together, the oppressive feeling would go away and eventually, he was able to adjust to the greater responsibilities of a big brother. Of the

Judicial Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Judicial Review - Essay Example Who will then protect the ordinary citizen from suffering from the wrath of the angry Queen of Hearts and give them a chance to have their cases reconsidered and to achieve procedural and substantive justice Our saviour is of course the remedy of Judicial Review which has become more of an eye sore to the Executive in the yester decades as the Judiciary continues to "check and balance" an unruly, highly political executive particularly after the new Constitutional Reform Act 2005 and the not so recent Human Rights Act 1998 which seems to have absorbed in the veins of judicial activism and recent case law with much ease. This Paper explores the process of judicial review of administrative action in the United Kingdom in the context of its constitutional significance. ... migration and Terrorism law post 9/11 and 7/7).Although there have been attempts to circumvent the scope and effect of the doctrine of Judicial Review in the past ( Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign Compensation Commission2) ,the most recent has been the notorious "ouster" clause in the Asylum and Immigration (Treatment of Claimants) Bill which has provoked an outcry from the human rights lobby and the constitutional law experts. Also significant is the role of the Human Rights Act 1998 which has to some extent resolved the debate whether judicial review should be based on common law or statute.3 Power must be Checked by Power4 The constitutional basis of Judicial review lies in the concept of "checks and balances" where as the actions of the members of the executive will be "checked" by the Judiciary to see whether they have gone beyond their "power" to prevent the arbitrary abuse of power. Traditionally the English approach to a systematisation of judicial review was remedial based and thus similar to the development of the prerogative writs5 which developed as personal requests by an individual to the King for the redressal of a wrong suffered by another individual.6The UK has no separate system of administrative courts (and the concept never found favour with the system either eversince the abolition of infamous prerogative Star Chamber).Thus the present administrative review system of England can be described as a body that combines both a substantive body of law containing grounds of review and a large number of administrative tribunals dealing with statutory appeals from decisions of public bodies. The subject of judicial review of administrative action thus requires a discussion of the role of the courts in devising and applying constraints to the exercise of